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Прочитайте предложенный текст и выберите единственно правильный ответ в каждом задании. price, along with product, place, and promotion, are the variables that the marketing manager controls. pricing is extremely important since it so directly affects an organization`s sales and profits. naturally, profit objectives will guide pricing decisions. the marketing manager has to decide whether to maximize profits or establish a target return. a particular target might be a certain percentage return on sales or a certain percentage return on investment or, for a small family operation, the return might be a fixed dollar amount of profit to cover overhead and living expenses. with any objective, the time factor is crucial. what is an appropriate objective for the short-term may not be for the long-term and vice-versa. marketers are concerned with all the factors affecting price, in order to keep their products from faring poorly in a widely variable atmosphere. even in service areas such as passenger fares and freight rates, where detailed prices are printed and distributed, influences may cause fluctuation. the marketing manager knows that the costs of the separate elements of the marketing mix can be recovered by proper pricing. the cost of the product itself—the promotion and selling associated with it, the distribution expenses, and profit — are all directly related to price. thus price knits together the elements of the marketing mix and pays for their respective contributions. the marketing manager must analyze and reconcile the various elements of those variables which influence price, and must then decide on an optimal price policy. the most fundamental part of any marketing analysis is the recognition of the competitive structure of the industry. where there are many competitors offering the same type of product, price competition will be active. when there are great numbers of similar offerings, products tend to lose their individuality. then differentiation becomes difficult, and marketers have little discretionary power to influence prices. it is in this circumstance that marketers and merchants alike look to sales techniques. disposing of goods at reduced prices draws attention to the specific brand, in the hope that customers will continue to buy when prices return to "normal." proper pricing can …

The irish travellers are the largest minority in ireland. there are about 25,000 irish travellers in ireland and 1,300 in northern ireland. they are a little understood nomadic community, who have many difficulties to overcome if they are to survive as a culture and gain acceptance into irish society. among the challenges facing them are poverty and racism. the irish travellers are a distinct ethnic group which has existed for centuries. often they are mistakenly considered part of the nomadic romani, an ethnic group which originated in the region of india and is now widespread throughout europe. but the irish travellers are indigenous to ireland, so the two cultures are not related. while both are nomadic, the irish travellers are roman catholic and speak a language that is theirs alone. they have their own culture, customs, traditions, and language. they are noted for their musical and storytelling abilities. in times past, they travelled by horse-drawn wagon in caravans, making camp along the way. tinsmithing, horse trading and peddling were the major sources of income in those days. tinsmiths were so prevalent among irish travellers that the terms tinker and irish traveller were used interchangeably. today, tinker is one of many names for irish travellers. horses and wagons have given way to mobile homes pulled by motor vehicles. they continue their life on the road, but there are fewer places to stop and fewer places where they are welcome. today, irish travellers mainly work in recycling. changing needs of society and progress have eliminated the jobs that could support a culture on wheels. irish travellers are poor, undereducated, and on the receiving end of discrimination. their life expectancy is lower than average while their infant mortality rate is higher than average. as is the case with the romani, the irish travellers are seen by many as a group of immoral, ignorant criminals and con artists. people distrust their nomadic culture and their language, shelta. many think it's a secret language specifically developed as a tool to help the irish travellers trick innocent people. but this is not true. it is an old language, which has evolved with time and circumstances. once heavily infused with irish gaelic, it is now infused with english. the irish travellers are mistakenly taken for the nomadic romani, another ... widely spread in europe.

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